6. Research - Macbeth

Research your own Shakespeare play: Macbeth
What is the play about? When was it first performed? Find a contemporary production of the play you can get an idea of and research it in terms of concept, style, design, casting. Give some attention to your own character and their role in the play.


'Macbeth' was first performed in  1603 and presented to James the I, who it has been claimed, the play was written for. The presence of the witches and witchcraft as an unnatural, evil form of being is laced into the plot throughout the play - which supported the beliefs of James I, who believed that women who carried out witchcraft were 'slaves of the devil' and the reason for suffering and disorder on earth. There was serious punishment for witchcraft and James I ordered constant witch-hunts and executions. Daemonologie, written in 1597 was James I's own account of witchcraft and it's 'evils'. 

An extract from Daemonologie - a message to the reader: 

"The fearefull aboundinge at this time in this countrie, of these detestable slaves of the Devill, the Witches or enchanters, hath moved me (beloved reader) to dispatch in post, this following treatise of mine, not in any way (as I protest) to serve for a shew of my learning and ingine, but onely (mooved of conscience) to preasse thereby, so farre as I can, to resolve the doubting harts of many; both that such assaultes of Sathan are most certainly practized, and that the instrumentes thereof, merits most severely to be punished:"

In 'Macbeth', it is the witches who reveal the prophecy and therefore cause the undoing of Scottish society.

The presentation of witches has developed massively over time, in Greek mythology they were often described as 'The Fates' - this evolving into the 'Moirai sisters' and then the 'Witches'. As the ensemble will be playing the 'Witches' throughout our production of Macbeth, there is an importance to understanding the origin of their representation and purpose in the plot. In every case they are powerful, strong beings, able to control the weather, and ultimately, the fate of mere mortals. Although as an ensemble of the witches we aren't presented as having explicit control of the weather, it is the sense of power that comes from this which is important to convey and emphasise in our embodiment.

Holinshed Chronicles

Shakespeare took most of his inspiration for Macbeth from The Holinshed Chronicles which were a compilation of volumes on British history. With vast record of Scotland's history and it's conflicts. One tale in the Holinshed Chronicles helped to shape Act 1, Scene 2 of Macbeth where Banquo and Macbeth reach the three weird sisters and approach them where they are told of the fatal prophecy which sets up the play's plot and tragedy. The Chronicles had vast records of Scottish history so this would have been a massive source for Shakespeare in writing the politics in regard to power in Scotland.

Macbeth explores control, ambition and fate in many ways, it is a comment on humanity and human tendencies and temptations. There is constant conflict throughout the play, firstly, with the introductory battle which sets the tone of the play, then Macbeth's own inner conflict - which is challenged throughout the play when he commits various violent and murderous acts against what represents peace and order in Scottish society. In a sense, Macbeth appears a paradox in himself, this noble character considered 'brave' and 'valiant' -  'For brace Macbeth - well he deserves that name' (Act 1 Scene 1) - only to be disturbed and obsessed with the prophecy which is revealed in the scene immediately afterwards in Scene 2. It is the tragedy of a man who succumbs to his fatal flaw and has a great downfall, even tragically, this only realised moments before death.

The Globe
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7bUv4X9ErWo - 2013 Dir. Eve Best 
This production focuses heavily on celtic style, and historical Scottish culture. The opening, which is shown in the clip uses a traditional Scottish sound, bagpipes, drums, to set the scene for the battle, where the music abandons its order and descends into a chaos. As the actors leave the stage, except for the three witches, who begin the play. The stage itself is designed as the forest with a wood quality which washes the stage in the setting and really supports the traditional styling of the play overall. The costume is also traditional, with a scheme of leather and red which reflects Scotland, but also drawing on Elizabethan costume.

The use of live music throughout, especially with the foreboding sound of the drums emphasises the presence of war and conflict in Macbeth and is effective in creating suspense and tension in the play and conveying this to the audience. 

Macbeth, played by Joseph Millson, appears expressive and quite emotive in his performance. There is a sense of anger that comes across in many of the soliloquies and a violence which he adopts to speak his mind, as though he is attacking the words, attacking his thoughts so that both his actions and words are aggressive, a retaliation against what isn't in his control.

The RSC
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=04nFFObLoPk - 1979 Dir. Trevor Nunn 
This RSC production of Macbeth has a powerful opening with the characters walking onto a circular, heavily darkened stage and sitting on chairs which line the edges. The action of the play happens in the middle and it is as though the characters are constantly shrouded in darkness, or a foreboding of the darkness 'out to get them'. All of the characters, apart from King Duncan, are dressed in black. Our first glimpse of King Duncan in this production is him on his knees, praying, shrouded in a bright light and set apart from the darkness of the surroundings and the people around him, by his white robes and golden cross chain. This style choice is strongly reflective of the play and it's contextual references to the Elizabethan belief that the monarchy and that 'royal blood' is divine and sacred. On stage, the effect is dramatic, the contrast powerful and laced with meaning, eliciting a real sense of, perhaps sympathy for the (in this production), although clearly powerful, old and 'good' man, who will inevitably be destroyed by the disturbed Macbeth, played by Ian Mckellen. In this production Ian Mckellen plays Macbeth as quite intrinsic and thoughtful. Everything seems to pass through his (Macbeth's) mind at great depth and with vast process before the words are spoken. At first these though processes are powerful, and lend themselves to present the character as controlled, however as the play progresses this develops into deep despair, and not necessarily control, but a detachment from reason and instead, an attachment to thoughts of pain, suffering and the prophecy which lead him to believe himself indestructible.

Interestingly, the witches in this production seem influenced by the more traditional representations - strange creatures, each of the three with a slightly different persona, much like the concept of the 'Moirai Sisters'. They are unnerving and unsettling, appearing, then vanishing out of and into the darkness, much like the way Shakespeare illustrates them in the play.

The RSC 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdIMzdm_neM -  2016 Dir. Michael Boyd
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z9GveRNPtPw

In the Michael Boyd RSC Production of Macbeth, the set design is heavily influenced by the historical and political context at the time, presented as a church, where religious figures are decayed or vandalised. There is a strong presence of religion, of heaven and hell presented through the concept of the set and the way certain characters are interpreted. 

Differently to many productions of Macbeth - The witches are not three grown women resemblant of traditional representation, but the three children murdered by Macbeth in his bloodthirsty struggle for the crown. Echoing laughter and the sound of children's footsteps haunt Macbeth and his decisions. 

In this production Macbeth, played by Jonathan Slinger is drastically wracked with guilt, almost from the beginning, it is as though he knows what he is going to do and this only pushes him further into his despair and resent - this is supported by the fact that the three children (witches) are presented as dead, hanging on meat hooks as the play begins. Jonathan Slinger is very emotive and expressive with his interpretation of Macbeth, he is clearly disturbed and presents this very outwardly to the audience, it seems his face is constantly a reflection of his pain and suffering within. 

3. London and Audiences

What was London like in Elizabethan times and who were the people attending the theatre?

'This city of london is not only brimfull of curiosities but so popular that one simply cannot walk along the streets for the crowd' - A visitor to London 1599

During Elizabethan reign London became the richest city in England and was massively prosperous. The River Thames allowed naval and commercial trade, attracting ships from all over the world. London became one of the busiest, central cities in the developing western world. The 16th century marked a change for London's development and it's economy, it was surrounded in success and the population had grown 400% from 1500 to 1600, at 200,000 people. It was a city filled with people of all backgrounds, and even home to refugees escaping religious or political persecution from the rest of Europe. Essentially, it was a city and an economy built on trade and relations with those outside of London and England, and the poor and labouring. John Stow made reports on London's population and trade on the Thames, focusing on the poor at the time.

John Stow's  'Survey of London'  (1598) - 
all kind of merchandise be easily conveyed to London, the principal store house, and staple of all commodities within this realm, so that omitting to speak of great ships, and other vessels of burden, there pertaineth to the cities of London, Westminster, and borough of Southwark, above the number as is supposed of 2000 wherries and other small boats, whereby 3000 poor men at the least be set on work and maintained. 

Queen Elizabeth at The Globe

People of all classes in society attended the theatre but were separated and divided, their status defined by where they could afford to sit, or stand if they were 'commoners'. Elizabeth I and James I were also recorded to have become the audience to theatre as acting companies would visit royalty and perform in their plays in their own royal courts. Queen Elizabeth's presence at the theatre and her interest in it as an art form, helped to keep it alive as many of the local authorities were against playhouses and the theatre as a form of entertainment.

The act of going to the theatre for the upper classes of society was often about a representation of wealth, people would attend dressed boldly and ostentatiously, making their way to the expensive balconies. The audiences in the Elizabethan Era were expected to shout back at the actors during the performances and would sometimes throw old fruit or objects at the actors as they performed. This was considered usual and a part of visiting the theatre, a participatory, almost immersive experience (for those so close to the stage). The audience was a lot more reactive about how they felt about performances and would loudly express how they felt about the different characters when they were on stage. Humour, violence and music was often central to the pieces presented in places like The Globe and other playhouses because this is what audiences enjoyed and responded positively to.
Audiences were male dominated, just as most public places were due to the fact that women were so restricted and limited in Elizabethan society, in 1629 it was recorded that a French company which had been touring around Europe, performed at the Globe and were pelted and forced off the stage by the enraged audience because they had rightfully used women to play the female roles.

Shakespeare clearly took inspiration from society in London and English culture in order to write his texts and therefore subjects such as marriage, religion and sex would have been heavily related to by the audience at the time. Whether it be mimicking it or presenting it sincerely, it was often an expected aspect to Shakespeare's plays.

4. Actors and 'Playhouses'

What were the theatres or ‘playhouses’ of Shakespeare’s time like and how were plays staged in them? Who were the actors of Shakespeare’s plays and how did the experience of being an actor differ from the experience today?

The Globe theatre was reconstructed in 1997 and is still open and throughly in use for plays constantly. The original globe had an open roof allowing light to pour in during the daytime and offering no shelter to the weather. It had an open pit for the poorer 'groundlings' who would pay a penny to stand as they could not afford the seating which was went around the theatre on all three sides. Because of the open roof there were no footlights or darkened areas to the theatres and any preparation was exposed at all times with no curtains or wings on the stage.

Clips of comedic re-enactment of Shakespearean acting (Rowan Atkinson)-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TmQKihNpsHk

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hb6MpS54RVE

A traditional production of Shakespeare-

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=seJYrEyGKh

The expectations of acting and
theatre today have changed drastically from the expectations in the Elizabethan Era. Acting is fundamentally respected for being a raw and honest representation of humanity, after influential practitioners such as Stanislavski and people who sought to define theatre as 'reality', without the breaking of the 'fourth wall' between actor and audience,  it evolved that actors would perform solely with each other on stage, as though the audience were non existent and the play they were acting in real life. Although Shakespeare's plays are about the about the suffering of humanity in all possible ways, whether it be tragic, comedic or historical, the techniques of acting in the Elizabethan period were very different to the actor of Chekhov's plays, for example, in the middle to late 1800's. The Elizabethan actor would speak their lines directly out to the audience, and there would often be a speech which introduced the play before it started. Unlike Chekhovian or Stanislavskian theatre, the staging of plays did not intend to portray reality or a particular accuracy in presenting the separate locations, but would use the space with as little set as was possible for the play to still make sense and the scenes to be played out accurately.

Live music and the dramatisation of the large and epic battle scenes were an important aspect to the performance of Shakespeare's plays. Actors were expected to carry out fight scenes and violence on stage, as well as be skilled in sword-fighting song and dance, for there would often be a final dance which the cast did at the end of a play to mark the ending and convey to the audience that the tragedy or the chaos which had happened was now solved and completed, that peace and order had now been restored in the world of the play and they could go back to their lives.

Playhouses were somewhat looked down upon by the 'officers of the church' and other respectable people in power who insisted upon all kinds of laws in order to restrict the freedom of the playhouses and who could attend them to watch theatre. The authorities believed that the playhouses were places of revelry and profanity, encouraging crime from the poorer classes and the disturbance of peace in the 'narrow and dark' London streets and lanes. They also questioned the 'good nature' of actors and suggested that the profession is a dishonourable one.

In terms of women actors, they were restricted from the stage until 1660, almost 50 years after Shakespeare's death in 1616.

2. Shakespeare - Life and Biography

Shakespeare - Biography
"[Shakespeare is the] soul of the age! The applause! The delight! The wonder of our stage."
- Writer Ben Johnson, 1623

Shakespeare was supposedly born on the 23rd April, 1564. He was born into a fairly privileged family and his father underwent various promotions in his time, finally becoming the town Bailiff which was the equivalent of the town mayor. Shakespeare's privileged background would have meant that he was enrolled into a Boy's Grammar School where there would be thorough lessons in Latin Classics, writing and Religious Studies - all of which may have influenced his plays and poetry. Shakespeare was married to Anne Hathaway in 1582 and they had three children. Shakespeare spent most of his time acting in plays and writing in London as it had the most opportunities for theatre in England at the time. Anne Hathaway and the children lived in Stratford so the family spent most of their time apart, however is it thought that the couple remained close until their death's as Shakespeare leaves Anne 'the second best bed' they had shared in his will. It was expected of any privileged home owner at the time that the 'first bed' be kept for guests or if a noble man might be passing and in need of a place to stay and so the act of giving Anne Hathaway the 'Second best bed' which they would have shared together was very romantic and telling of their relationship and how much Shakespeare may have admired her. This is a contemporary poem written by Carol Ann-Duffy, referencing Hathaway and Shakespeare's relationship;

Anne Hathaway's Bed

Shakespeare was a playwright and actor, belonging to the 'Lord Chamberlain's men' collective. As his theatrical career progressed his plays were sought after by Queen Elizabeth I. It has been argued that much of Shakespeare's histories were written in order to please or glorify the English monarchy, or others in power within England. Richard III is suggestive of this as it follows the crowning of Richard III who has the 'blackened blood' of House of York. The restoration of the crown to 'good' Tudor blood by the end of the play could be an indicator that Shakespeare wrote the play to tarnish Richard III as a leader and glorify Queen Elizabeth I. All of the histories are based around real conflicts within Europe and England and always include a powerful figure from the past rising into and falling out of power.
By 1599 Shakespeare was still very much a member of 'The Lord Chamberlain's Men' and the group decided to build The Globe Theatre. A place in which the group could now perform theatre on a stage which they had owned and set up themselves, from then on Theatre had become one of the most important aspects to London culture.

The Taming of the Shew

Shakespeare's works reflect the beliefs of society at the time, often covering issues such as racism, antisemitism, sexism and sexuality. It is often conflicted as to whether the issues that are referenced are in favour of the prejudice or whether Shakespeare is commenting on and revealing, what he believed to be the discriminate tendencies of society. Plays such as The Taming of the Shrew, Othello, The Merchant of Venice, very heavily focus on all of these issues, but is Shakespeare's contradiction which confuses audiences. This contradiction comes from the fact that Shakespeare will often decide that the isolated, targeted character - whether this be a black man with high status in a white dominated society, a woman who challenges feminine stereotype, or a Jew who is criminalised and demonised - all will falter in the end or become weak, usually giving in to their own flaws and undoing all they have ever stood or lived for.

Othello

The Merchant of Venice

It has been controversially suggested that William Shakespeare was not the legitimate author to all of the works known by his hand, and that he possibly stole the work of other writers, claiming them it as his own. Other speculations suggest that the name 'William Shakespeare' is simply a pen name for another writer by the name of Edward de Vere due to the strong correlations between de Vere's life and the lives of the characters present in the writing. Much of the reason for the argument against William Shakespeare's legitimacy of authorship is because of the lack of evidence and record there is of his own voice away from the writing supposed to be his. There is little evidence to prove that the William Shakespeare titled as author on the work held so high in regard now, is indeed a man of that name. It is clear that (the supposed) Shakespeare was heavily influenced and inspired by other texts to create the plots for his plays. Amongst these are, Metamorphoses by Ovid, the tragedies of the Italian novelist Giovanni Battista Giraldi and other mythology which is referenced throughout. The 'Last Will and Testament' written by Shakespeare himself perhaps suggests and reveals more about the elusive man, which seems such a mystery to us. The will is written messily and it has a detached nature to it, fuelling much of the argument against the Shakespeare's authenticity as it was so out of line of the rest of the work which is so renowned and respected.

To the Memory of My Beloved the Author, Mr. William Shakespeare

Related Poem Content Details

BY BEN JONSON - An Epitaph

To draw no envy, Shakespeare, on thy name, 

Am I thus ample to thy book and fame; 

While I confess thy writings to be such 

As neither man nor muse can praise too much; 

'Tis true, and all men's suffrage. But these ways 

Were not the paths I meant unto thy praise; 

For seeliest ignorance on these may light, 

Which, when it sounds at best, but echoes right; 

Or blind affection, which doth ne'er advance 

The truth, but gropes, and urgeth all by chance; 

Or crafty malice might pretend this praise, 

And think to ruin, where it seem'd to raise. 

These are, as some infamous bawd or whore 

Should praise a matron; what could hurt her more? 

But thou art proof against them, and indeed, 

Above th' ill fortune of them, or the need. 

I therefore will begin. Soul of the age! 

The applause, delight, the wonder of our stage! 

My Shakespeare, rise! I will not lodge thee by 

Chaucer, or Spenser, or bid Beaumont lie 

A little further, to make thee a room: 

Thou art a monument without a tomb, 

And art alive still while thy book doth live 

And we have wits to read and praise to give. 

That I not mix thee so, my brain excuses, 

I mean with great, but disproportion'd Muses, 

For if I thought my judgment were of years, 

I should commit thee surely with thy peers, 

And tell how far thou didst our Lyly outshine, 

Or sporting Kyd, or Marlowe's mighty line. 

And though thou hadst small Latin and less Greek, 

From thence to honour thee, I would not seek 

For names; but call forth thund'ring Aeschylus, 

Euripides and Sophocles to us; 

Pacuvius, Accius, him of Cordova dead, 

To life again, to hear thy buskin tread, 

And shake a stage; or, when thy socks were on, 

Leave thee alone for the comparison 

Of all that insolent Greece or haughty Rome 

Sent forth, or since did from their ashes come. 

Tri'umph, my Britain, thou hast one to show 

To whom all scenes of Europe homage owe. 

He was not of an age but for all time! 

And all the Muses still were in their prime, 

When, like Apollo, he came forth to warm 

Our ears, or like a Mercury to charm! 

Nature herself was proud of his designs 

And joy'd to wear the dressing of his lines, 

Which were so richly spun, and woven so fit, 

As, since, she will vouchsafe no other wit. 

The merry Greek, tart Aristophanes, 

Neat Terence, witty Plautus, now not please, 

But antiquated and deserted lie, 

As they were not of Nature's family. 

Yet must I not give Nature all: thy art, 

My gentle Shakespeare, must enjoy a part. 

For though the poet's matter nature be, 

His art doth give the fashion; and, that he 

Who casts to write a living line, must sweat, 

(Such as thine are) and strike the second heat 

Upon the Muses' anvil; turn the same 

(And himself with it) that he thinks to frame, 

Or, for the laurel, he may gain a scorn; 

For a good poet's made, as well as born; 

And such wert thou. Look how the father's face 

Lives in his issue, even so the race 

Of Shakespeare's mind and manners brightly shines 

In his well-turned, and true-filed lines; 

In each of which he seems to shake a lance, 

As brandish'd at the eyes of ignorance. 

Sweet Swan of Avon! what a sight it were 

To see thee in our waters yet appear, 

And make those flights upon the banks of Thames, 

That so did take Eliza and our James! 

But stay, I see thee in the hemisphere 

Advanc'd, and made a constellation there! 

Shine forth, thou star of poets, and with rage 

Or influence, chide or cheer the drooping stage; 

Which, since thy flight from hence, hath mourn'd like night, 

And despairs day, but for thy volume's light. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fxCu55Qwlcw 

1. Life in Elizabethan England

What sense do you get of what life was like in Elizabethan England? Try to include information on: The population, entertainment, religion, superstition, money, jobs, medicine, theatre.

Elizabethan Reign (Era)
1558 - 1603

Money, Jobs, The Poor Population
Life in Elizabethan England is clearly roughly divided and built on the separation of the classes. Status is held in high regard and defines all that a person's life might amount to, and what they might be able to achieve. The poor, that live both in the countryside and in the towns and cities, are extremely limited and can be deprived of things as basic as light, 'A poor family cannot afford much light.'

'The Act of the Relief of the Poor' is brought out by the government under Elizabeth's reign, making local taxes compulsory in order to provide for the poorest in the country. However the people are still violently secluded from each other and society lacks equality in an ever rising population which grew from 3.2 million to 4.1 million during the 45 years of Elizabethan reign. Overall, life is bleak and dark for the poor.

'The cold stuck so deep into them. Their flesh was eaten with vermin and corrupt diseases grew on them.' - City of Norwich: Orders for The Poor (1571)

Money in the Elizabethan Era was based on Pound, Shilling and Pence. Jobs for men in the countryside would include:

A Yeoman: Owns or rents his farm and employs workers to cultivate the farm land.

A Husbandman: Rents the land he works on.

A Labourer: Works on the farmland of others for very low pay.

The labourers are the most poor and have long working days, with the payment of just one Groat a day, allowing for only 6000 calories in food per day, without leaving anything for rent, firewood, or children.

Religion and Superstition
The overarching religion in the time of Elizabethan reign was Christianity, with two denominations, the Protestants and the Catholics. Some Jewish communities were in existence in the Elizabethan period, but had to conceal their religion due to prejudice and persecution, as presented in Shakespeare's The Merchant Of Venice.

Henry VIII had separated from the Roman Catholic Church during his reign, causing the Catholics and Protestants to become conflicted. This constant religious conflict spanned a long period of time and meant that many executions on both sides occurred. This became a political issue when England communicated and traded with other countries which were heavily ruled by Catholicism.

The Great Chain of Being

Religion was heavily influential on Elizabethan life and even indicated and justified that the societal class you might be born into was where you should remain throughout your life on earth as this was the will of God. This was the Divine Order, The Great Chain of Being, which depicted a hierarchy for all people, and where they were placed in this strict structure depending on their social class.

The monarchy were believed to be divine, chosen by God and intended to rule over people in his place and so disobedience of the monarchy was deemed a sin. This belief of the monarchs as divine meant that if a monarch appeared less holy, or wrong for the throne, the natural order of the earth and the environment would be thrown into disarray and chaos - a superstition which is reflected in Shakespeare's Macbeth.

Witchcraft received much attack and resistance during the 16th century. People believed that witchcraft was 'devilish' and wrong, it was conflicted with christian ideologies at the time and was feared society. In 1562 Elizabethan Witchcraft Act was passed. It was an act 'agaynst Conjuracions Inchauntmentes and Witchecraftes'. The first witch trials were lead by the King of Scotland James the VI due to his fears of witchcraft. These trials allowed the execution of women, they would often be poor, unmarried women and the execution was often a torturous, long death, carried out without any evidence. Witchcraft is referenced in Shakespeare's Macbeth.

Theatre and Entertainment
Much of the entertainment in the Elizabethan Era involved the pain and suffering of animals and humans. Bear baiting was a form of entertainment which involved tying a bear to a stake in the middle of an arena and allowing the public to watch it try to escape as dogs were loosed towards it. There is contextual reference to this in Shakespeare's Macbeth when Macbeth claims that ‘They have tied me to the stake; I cannot fly/ But bear-like I must fight the course.’ Other forms of entertainment included 'Cockfighting' and of course Theatre. People would often watch public executions as a form of enjoyment and entertainment, shouting encouragements or curses whilst it was happening as though it were all an act or a game.

The most renowned playwrights at the time were William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe who would heavily reflect the ideologies, superstitions and beliefs of the society at the time. Much of Shakespeare's theatre was written to please those in power at the time, or comment on humanity and the way they might behave.

Theatre in the Elizabethan Era was one aspect of the time where the classes came together and found a common ground or mutual acceptance. Although they would be divided by seating or standing within the theatre they were able to watch the same pieces. However, the patriarchal nature of Elizabethan society mean that women were not permitted to play roles in any of the theatre, women's roles would often be played by young men or boys pretending to be women as it was not seen as an acceptable job for a woman to become an actress or perform on stage.

When Theatre began it was purely religious and was used to present bible moral or stories through performance, however during the Elizabethan period, theatre became more secular and although playwrights were heavily influenced by religion and the bible, it was not the sole purpose, or focus of the plays that were written and performed. Actors and writers would often be part of companies which toured and performed for and under the name of 'noblemen' - usually wealthy, aristocratic men who held important power and titles within Elizabethan society. Their acquirement of a touring company might have been a representation of their wealth and status at the time.

The establishment of an increasing amount of theatres all over London meant that the people's interest in theatre was becoming a part of London life and these permanent stages defined Theatre as a strong part of London culture.

Plague Doctor

Medicine
"Here in the city visiting the sick,
And finding him, the searchers of the town,
Suspecting that both were in a house
Where the infectious pestilence did reign..."

During the Elizabethan period, disease and infection spread easily and quickly between communities and within towns. Knowledge of sanitation and hygiene was very limited to almost non existent, it was not unusual for the public to defecate in the streets in the same areas used for food markets around stalls such as butchers. The streets were a ruin, diseased and filled with dirt. For the poor, disease and infection was expected and rife, but medicine was sparse and limited, not based on scientific evidence, or medical knowledge but herbal, apothecary treatments, or influenced by religious belief or superstition.

The Black Death, which was the first outbreak of Plague in the 1300's laid the way for other plagues which continued with various outbreaks until 1750. Plague was a highly infectious disease spread from person. At the time it was incurable and not helped by the fact that any public services were non-existent and people were unaware of how to prevent spreading the disease. Plague was so deadly that many entertainment facilities, including theatres were closed by the authorities for years in fear of it spreading.

Much of the treatment at the time wasn't preventative or curable, only temporary remedy, such as bathing in hot water, the smoking out of a room with herbs and plants, or a change in diet. More complex treatments would involve a physician and this was largely unavailable to those in poverty who were unable to afford the treatment, it wasn't until the NHS was introduced that medical treatment was accessible for every aspect of the public.